Herman Miller Inc Case Study Essay

Until 2003, HMI offered lifelong employment. How did this practice affect the company’s ability to staff the organization with managers and employees capable of executing the strategy? How did this practice build the organizational capabilities required for successful strategy execution? Lifelong employment is known as permanent employees work for a single employer and are paid directly by that employer. In addition to their wages, they often receive benefits like subsidized health care, paid vacations, holidays, sick time, or contributions to a retirement plan. Permanent employees are often eligible to switch job positions within their companies. Even when employment is â€Å"at will†, permanent employees of large companies are generally protected from abrupt job termination by severance policies, like advance notice in case of layoffs, or formal discipline procedures. They may be eligible to join a union, and may enjoy both social and financial benefits of their employment. Lifelong employment facilitates long-term growth for employees, companies and industries. It develops seasoned personnel and allows company and projects to build on lessons learned. Project in particular, benefit from this information transfer, as teams and individual are poised to take the expertise and knowledge of one experience to the next challenge, building continuity for the entire industry. This experience results in better asset management and improved life-of-field systems that are safe and efficient to operate. Lifelong employment facilitate: improved engineering designs; longer lead times for manufacturing and sourcing of equipment; improved constructability; lower cost for operations and maintenance; opportunities for expanded development; stronger knowledge base to tackle tough technical issues. Organization provides lifelong employees a much better benefit package such as paid vacation, sick leave and holidays. Most importantly, those employees normally can expect career advancement and the opportunity to be part of a larger team and the pursuit of long-term goals. Organization takes a long-term focus on employees with regard to training, benefits, retention and involvement in industry activities. Most importantly, organization focused on improvement through lessons learned, translating knowledge gained  with each project into innovative opportunities for projects worldwide. Experienced, lifelong employment makes this challenge a reality, capturing lessons, observations and new ideas for ongoing and future applications. (Bruce Crager, World Energy, Vol.9, No. 1, P88-90) Do non-monetary incentives facilitate strategy execution at HMI? Explain. Yes, non-monetary incentives facilitate strategy execution at HMI. Justifiability Tangible incentives offer features that recipients often see as luxuries. In other words, a trip or item that a sales person may not be able to justify purchasing themselves, even if they had sufficient funds, is now attainable through their performance. The need to justify the consumption of the tangible reward is eliminated by the hard work put forth to create the opportunity. The value increases in the participant’s mind with the increased difficulty to obtain it. This lack of need to justify the use of the reward increases the motivational impact of working to obtain it. ( Jeffrey, Scott A., Shaffer, V. The Motivational Properties of Tangible Incentives. Compensation and Benefits Review. May/June 2007) Social Reinforcement The high level of visibility of this reward increases the ability for family, friends and colleagues to recognize and acknowledge the tangible incentive. The ‘trophy value’ is high hence reinforcing the performance to obtain it. Tangible Tangible non-cash incentive rewards offer an immediate visual imagery and associated experience. The ability to see oneself sitting on the beach in Hawaii or watching the 60† plasma television has an immediate motivating response to individuals over the monetary value that would be equal to these items. Separate Impact A tangible non-cash award is immediately separated from the sales person’s income and therefore typically not ‘lumped’ with other funds. This  separation from regular income has positive association back to the awarding firm and provides more motivational impact for sales people or employees. Promotability/Communication Value Companies get extended value from offering tangible non-cash awards because the recipients often will share their rewards or experiences with others. They also are proud to communicate their accomplishment with others, spreading the word about the company in the process. Discretionary Reward Because tangible non-cash rewards are not designed to be used for regular bill paying, recipients feel good about using them for aspirational, memorable items or experiences. These good feelings extend toward the company whenever they use the items or look at the trip pictures. Success Creation in Program Design The incentive non-cash program should include the following key components building on the motivating factors to insure its success during implementation, acceptance and rollout. (Jeffrey, Scott, 2004, University of Chicago, Graduate School of Business, The Benefits of Tangible Non-Monetary Incentculture as ives) Describe the culture at HMI. Would you characterize HMI’s culture as healthy and largely supportive of good strategy execution? Explain. Teams were often cross-functional. Membership on a team was based on the employee’s ability to contribute to that team. Teams were often based on product development. When the product had been developed, the members of that team were redistributed to new projects. New projects could come from any level in the organization. Workers at all levels were encouraged to put forth new ideas. Because Herman Miller workers felt empowered, a new manager could run into some startling behavior. All Herman Miller employees could work 16 paid hours a year with a charitable organization of their choice. The company set goals for the number of employee volunteer hours contributed  annually to its communities. Progress toward meeting those goals was reported to the CEO. The environmental Affairs Team had responsibility for such activities as recycling solid waste and designing products from sustainable resources. Herman Miller’s beliefs carried over to the family and the community. For example, one employee chose more costly fiber cement board over PVC siding when in restoring their home, because Herman Miller had a policy â€Å"to avoid PVC wherever possible†. Another employee was involved in a youth soccer association that raised money to buy uniforms by collecting newspapers and aluminum cans. The company’s beliefs carried over to all functional areas of the business. Some of them were obviously beneficial, and some were simply the way Herman Miller chose to conduct its business. But we cannot deny HMI’s culture as healthy and largely supportive of good strategy execution. To sum up, the overall business goals of any organization are both bottom-line-oriented and employee satisfaction-oriented. In the development of an incentive reward system it is important to implement a program that will help an organization reach its organizational objectives while enhancing employee/customer satisfaction, retention and performance. The implementation of non-monetary tangible rewards in an organization’s incentive program will be the best decision for all employee/customer influencing managers to implement when working to reach sales quota, revenue numbers and overall goals for the firm. The motivating factors behind performance can be far reaching. (Jeffrey, Scott A., Shaffer, V. The Motivational Properties of Tangible Incentives. Compensation and Benefits Review. May/June 2007)

A Brief History of Unctad Essay

The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) was established in 1964 as a permanent intergovernmental body. It is the principal organ of the United Nations General Assembly dealing with trade, investment, and development issues. The organization’s goals are to â€Å"maximize the trade, investment and development opportunities of developing countries and assist them in their efforts to into the world economy on an equitable basis.† (from official website). The creation of the conference was based on concerns of developing countries over the international market, multi-national corporations, and great disparity between developed nations and developing nations. In the 1970s and 1980s, UNCTAD was closely associated with the idea of a New International Economic Order (NIEO). The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development was established in 1964 in order to provide a forum where the developing countries could discuss the problems relating to their economic development. UNCTAD grew from the view that existing institutions like GATT (now replaced by the World Trade Organization, WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and World Bank were not properly organized to handle the particular problems of developing countries. The primary objective of the UNCTAD is to formulate policies relating to all aspects of development including trade, aid, transport, finance and technology. The Conference ordinarily meets once in four years. The first conference took place in Geneva in 1964, second in New Delhi in 1968, the third in Santiago in 1972, fourth in Nairobi in 1976, the fifth in Manila in 1979, the sixth in Belgrade in 1983, the seventh in Geneva in 1987, the eighth in Cartagena in 1992 and the ninth at Johannesburg (South Africa)in 1996. The Conference has its permanent secretariat in Geneva. One of the principal achievements of UNCTAD has been to conceive and implement the Generalised System of Preferences (GSP). It was argued in UNCTAD, that in order to promote exports of manufactured goods from developing countries, it would be necessary to offer special tariff concessions to such exports. Accepting this argument, the developed countries formulated the GSP Scheme under which manufacturers’ exports and some agricultural goods from the developing countries enter duty-free or at reduced rates in the developed countries. Since imports of such items from other developed countries are subject to the normal rates of duties, imports of the same items from developing countries would enjoy a competitive advantage. Currently, UNCTAD has 194 member States and is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. UNCTAD has 400 staff members and an bi-annual (2010–2011) regular budget of $138 million in core budget expenditures and $72 million in extra-budgetary technical assistance funds. It is also a member of the United Nations Development Group.] There is a list of non-governmental organizations participating in the activities of UNCTAD A Brief History of UNCTAD Page Image Image CaptionPage ContentFoundation * In the early 1960s, growing concerns about the place of developing countries in international trade led many of these countries to call for the convening of a full-fledged conference specifically devoted to tackling these problems and identifying appropriate international actions. * The first United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) was held in Geneva in 1964. Given the magnitude of the problems at stake and the need to address them, the conference was institutionalized to meet every four years, with intergovernmental bodies meeting between sessions and a permanent secretariat providing the necessary substantive and logistical support. * Simultaneously, the developing countries established the Group of 77 to voice their concerns. (Today, the G77 has 131 members.) * The prominent Argentinian economist Raà ºl Prebisch, who had headed the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, became the organization’s first Secretary-General. Phase 1: The 1960s and 1970s * In its early decades of operation, UNCTAD gained authoritative standing: * as an intergovernmental forum for North-South dialogue and negotiations on issues of interest to developing countries, including debates on the â€Å"New International Economic Order†. * for its analytical research and policy advice on development issues. * Agreements launched by UNCTAD during this time include * | * * the Generalized System of Preferences (1968), whereby developed economies grant improved market access to exports from developing countries. * a number of International Commodities Agreements, which aimed at stabilizing the prices of export products crucial for developing countries. * the Convention on a Code of Conduct for Liner Conferences, which strengthened the ability of developing countries to maintain national merchant fleets. * the adoption of a Set of Multilaterally Agreed Equitable Principles and Rules for the Control of Restrictive Business Practices. This work later evolved into what is today known as â€Å"Trade and Competition Policies†.

A Fans View on Angelina Jolie

She is a person of admiration. Which is known globally with partner Brad Pitt has adopted children from Africa. In my view, many people may not be able to do the same. She is a very assertive and open. She is a member of the charitable foundation that provides assistance to all who need it. Although very popular, not so presumptuous as all stars. It behaves as if the world outside of the show. Angelina Jolie is a film actress and television. Born in Los Angeles in 1975. Throughout her career she has received numerous awards for his acting achievements, including an Academy Award and three Golden Globes is considered one of the sexiest women in the world and this is the focus of the entertainment press. In mid-2009, Angelina Jolie was ranked first in the list of Forbes magazine among the highest paid actresses in Hollywood, according to data released by the publication. It has three biological children with her partner, fellow actor, Brad Pitt. In 2001 he was appointed ambassador to the United Nations, actively participating with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Angelina uses its popularity to the media attention devoted to the case of refugees and the terrible conditions in which they live. She has visited many refugee camps and centers in countries like Tanzania, Cambodia, Pakistan, Namibia, Thailand and Ecuador. For his charitable work has been awarded grants humanitarian immigration program for refugees and Church World Service. Angelina Jolie and partner Brad Pitt have donated a million dollars each to two organizations dedicated to helping the disadvantaged, Global Action for Children and Doctors Without Borders. The organization provides aid in nearly 60 countries to people whose survival is threatened by violence, neglect, or catastrophe, primarily due to armed conflict, epidemics, malnutrition, exclusion from health care, or natural disasters, for emergency medical assistance to help victims of the Haiti earthquake. Asked what she hoped to accomplish meeting with refugees and internally displaced persons in more than 20 countries, she stated, â€Å"Awareness of the plight of these people. I think they should be commended for what they have survived, not looked down upon. † (Jolie 2003). As seen in previous paragraphs Angelina Jolie is a very bold and sociable. she has always shown love to everyone around the world an example of some publications that are published on the Facebook page: â€Å"On World Humanitarian Day we remember the aid workers who have lost their lives in the line of duty and we honor the extraordinary courage and dedication of humanitarian workers around the world,† she wrote. â€Å"I had the honor and the pleasure of meeting one of these brave individuals before his murder during a visit to Pakistan, where I witnessed first-hand the incredible devotion of a very kind and gentle man. His name was Mr. Zill-e-Usman. † (Jolie 2012) Angelina Jolie has spent many years helping the poor. The actress feels very fortunate to work as a member of UNHCR and refugees. According to the couple of Brad Pitt said about this: â€Å"It is true that they are the most vulnerable in the world, but paradoxically also the most resistant. They are survivors who have been forced to leave their homes and go without any possession thousands of miles to seek a better life. † (Jolie 2012) No doubt this woman is an example for many people who only care about the physical appearance and not help others. A Fans View on Angelina Jolie She is a person of admiration. Which is known globally with partner Brad Pitt has adopted children from Africa. In my view, many people may not be able to do the same. She is a very assertive and open. She is a member of the charitable foundation that provides assistance to all who need it. Although very popular, not so presumptuous as all stars. It behaves as if the world outside of the show. Angelina Jolie is a film actress and television. Born in Los Angeles in 1975. Throughout her career she has received numerous awards for his acting achievements, including an Academy Award and three Golden Globes is considered one of the sexiest women in the world and this is the focus of the entertainment press. In mid-2009, Angelina Jolie was ranked first in the list of Forbes magazine among the highest paid actresses in Hollywood, according to data released by the publication. It has three biological children with her partner, fellow actor, Brad Pitt. In 2001 he was appointed ambassador to the United Nations, actively participating with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Angelina uses its popularity to the media attention devoted to the case of refugees and the terrible conditions in which they live. She has visited many refugee camps and centers in countries like Tanzania, Cambodia, Pakistan, Namibia, Thailand and Ecuador. For his charitable work has been awarded grants humanitarian immigration program for refugees and Church World Service. Angelina Jolie and partner Brad Pitt have donated a million dollars each to two organizations dedicated to helping the disadvantaged, Global Action for Children and Doctors Without Borders. The organization provides aid in nearly 60 countries to people whose survival is threatened by violence, neglect, or catastrophe, primarily due to armed conflict, epidemics, malnutrition, exclusion from health care, or natural disasters, for emergency medical assistance to help victims of the Haiti earthquake. Asked what she hoped to accomplish meeting with refugees and internally displaced persons in more than 20 countries, she stated, â€Å"Awareness of the plight of these people. I think they should be commended for what they have survived, not looked down upon. † (Jolie 2003). As seen in previous paragraphs Angelina Jolie is a very bold and sociable. she has always shown love to everyone around the world an example of some publications that are published on the Facebook page: â€Å"On World Humanitarian Day we remember the aid workers who have lost their lives in the line of duty and we honor the extraordinary courage and dedication of humanitarian workers around the world,† she wrote. â€Å"I had the honor and the pleasure of meeting one of these brave individuals before his murder during a visit to Pakistan, where I witnessed first-hand the incredible devotion of a very kind and gentle man. His name was Mr. Zill-e-Usman. † (Jolie 2012) Angelina Jolie has spent many years helping the poor. The actress feels very fortunate to work as a member of UNHCR and refugees. According to the couple of Brad Pitt said about this: â€Å"It is true that they are the most vulnerable in the world, but paradoxically also the most resistant. They are survivors who have been forced to leave their homes and go without any possession thousands of miles to seek a better life. † (Jolie 2012) No doubt this woman is an example for many people who only care about the physical appearance and not help others.

Germany and the Germans Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Germany and the Germans - Essay Example This sense of commonality of the people fit the objectives for Hitler and the Third Reich. In speeches, they appealed to the betterment and welfare of the people seeking to bring back Volkish culture. Germans wanted a clearly defined distinction between Germans and the other peoples of Europe. This discussion analyzes the influence of nationalist thought in the shaping of Nazi policies beginning with a historical definition of the term ‘Volk’ and the reasons for its integration into German society of the 1800’s. It will also address how the Nazi party utilized these precepts as an idealistic tool, why they established these concepts and how effective this tactic was in congregating the people. The ideas intended to unify a nation advanced by nationalist philosophies evolved for over a century into a national impression of superiority. The Third Reich did not expose the German people to beliefs to which they were not originally pre-disposed. The regime had to be su pported by the German people for it to have experienced the heights of popularity that it achieved during the 1930’s and this support came from a nationalistic narcissism. Nazi ideology was not an overnight event. It had evolved for over a century with a beginning in Volkish beliefs. ... This draw to unify inspired a considerable interest in the German people’s common culture, myths, legends and folksongs. â€Å"This idea found many adherents, reacting to both the Napoleonic conquest of Germany from 1806 to 1811 and the rationalism and scientific advances of the English and the French later in the century† (Iggers 1988). Though still not politically united, Germans were learning to take pride in their cultural accomplishments. There was, unfortunately, a dark aspect to unification. The tendency for cultural nationalism produced cultural superiority and intolerance, which, when combined with racism, was a powerful political force of nineteenth-century Europe. Volkish writers, in-step with the people of the mid to late 1800’s Germany were becoming increasingly intolerant of cultures other than their own. In the mid-1800’s, the term ‘semitic’ became widely adopted by as a result of German philologist Wilhelm Marr’s foundat ion of the Anti-Semitic League. In 1879, he determined the Hebrew language was ‘semitic’ and not Indo-European (Wegner 2002 p. 2) â€Å"The mysticalized, Volkish linguistic foundation for the Aryan myth was a popular concept in the mid-1800s that both Friedrich and August Wilhelm Schlegel, among others, had argued vociferously for, to overflowing university classrooms and in their voluminous writings† (Wegner 2002 pp. 8-9). This linguistic difference provided a means for those of nationalist thought to further identify themselves as different from and superior to anyone of Jewish descent well before the Nazis came to power. It was widely held that the true German spirit was rooted in nature. The people perceived the rural culture

Case study ---Twinkie-eating vultures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Case study ---Twinkie-eating vultures - Essay Example A vulture capitalist is an investor who has used sections of the terms of an investment deal in a company to grab rights of the company or the valuable parts of the company (Cyr, 1998). This is a sharp contrast to a venture capitalist who always invests in the company likely to excel in the market and bring profit to the investor. The case of Hostess Brands Inc is run by vulture capitalists who are always looking for ways to invest in a company that will likely not bring profit in the present so that they bring out the takeover clauses which will end up in the forfeiture of the company’s assets. This will make the vulture capitalists sell off the parts constituting the company and this will make them earn profit while the company collapses. This is according to Goldstein (2011) explanation. Twinkie-eating Vultures With the hobbling of the Hostess Brands Inc.; the media through the vulture capitalists have been informing the masses that the products they use to get from the Hos tess Brands like Twinkies, Ding Dong and Ho Hos since they believe that the Public Sector Unions are solely responsible for the collapse of the company. This is the first tactic that the vulture capitalists use when they are blaming the other concerned parties for the collapse of the firm or company in this case they ensured that Bakery, Confectionery, Tobacco Workers and Grain Millers International Union were blamed for the collapsing and meltdown of Hostess Brands Inc. The work of BCTGM is to represent the interests of employees within the organizations. In the Hostess case the BCTGM was very influential on the employees’ interests in the company and as such it can be deemed that the conservatives who are the vulture capitalists had seen this as a controversy and as such they had to take the blame for the Hostess Brands Inc. shortcomings. According Kotz (1994) the public unions are always highly controversial among the conservatives who always advocate the downsizing of the public sector and will always blame the unions for their losses and deficit. The union itself was represented in the Hostess Company by around 5,600 employees and this can be argued that they did not bring the company down. Instead the managers left in charge are responsible for being incompetent and bringing the company to a close as they had announced. To the capitalists the employees were of no importance to the employers not with the sacrifices they made on behalf of the company. The union which has the mandate to put the interests of the workers before anything else took a great exception on the Hostess Brands Inc. The BCTGM workers never inquired on getting more money from the company, neither did they ask for any benefits to be accorded to them nor did they ask for better pensions. The union workers’ basis was that they wanted to ensure that the company in the end should have had a great turnover and mobility. This would have brought the company to a profit making fir m. One of the main emphases in any company should be the contested exchange logic. The logic of contested change basically implies that when it comes to labor the production process must not be perceived as the combination of labor in conjunction with non-labor inputs instead it should be seen as also the process whereby the labor on actual work is also derived from workers. With

Race and the American Quest for Equality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Race and the American Quest for Equality - Essay Example The fact that German-Americans were not held in internment camps proves there was a racial dimension. Most African-Americans were brought to America against their will and enslaved. Slavery was not a new practice. In the ancient world, people could be enslaved if they were defeated in a war. The fact that Americans enslaved a specific race meant that society justified their actions by claiming that people of that race were inferior. Even after African-Americans were released from slavery, they still had to struggle against widespread racism and economic and political discrimination. Native Americans were horribly disadvantaged when the Europeans first came to America and began to take their land. In a long process, the United States took more and more land until they had taken virtually all the lands that had once belonged to the Native Americans. Discrimination continued against the Native Americans even after their lands had been stolen. They were forced onto small reservations whe re jobs were hard to find and alcoholism and psychological problems went untreated. Even though there has been great progress in reducing racism, these groups are still disadvantaged today. Racism still exists in America even though most people are now afraid to show they are racist or don’t even believe they are racist. One part of racism today is the stereotyping of members of minority groups. Comedians today joke about how Asian Americans are good at math and have small penises and African-Americans are violent and lazy and Native Americans are alcoholics and lazy.... Sometimes these jokes are funny and the comedian is making fun of his own racial group, but that does not mean that it is not racist. The jokers forget that members of a "race" are individuals who cannot be defined by their ethnic background. These groups are also disadvantaged today because of the economic and political discrimination their ancestors have already experienced. If your parents and grandparents were successful, then it is much easier for you to be successful because your parents are able to teach you how to succeed and they can provide support to help you take advantage of your opportunities. People in these groups who have been discriminated against do not have a fair chance to help their children be as successful as those who have not experienced discrimination. San Francisco includes many people in its vision of success, but it is still not perfect. I know many Asian Americans who are successful here, but that does not mean they are always treated fairly. I don't know as many African-Americans, but I know that some of them are successful and some are not as successful. For the ones who aren't as successful, part of the reason they are disadvantaged is probably because of their "race," and this is wrong. I don't know many Native Americans, which shows that they are still disadvantaged, since they used to be the only people here. I feel that the best way for me to change people's vision of who is included in my community is to celebrate my own culture and to try to learn more about others' cultures. Many of the differences that have been attributed to "race," which makes people believe the differences are biological, should be attributed to culture. For example, the comedian that says

Reaction Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Reaction Paper - Essay Example Children are the party who suffer most when parents go through a divorce and have to share the children much like other assets in a marriage. There seems to be a link between divorce and delinquency and it is easy to connect the two although there may be deeper causes as well. Even in cases where divorce does not break up a family, a married couple can live with children in a hostile environment which continually causes stress to all those living in it. In such situations parents may show less control over their children and even show a lessened interest in their activities. Such situations are reported to lower the self esteem of the children involved and an increase in delinquent behavior. Interestingly enough, and it is possible to this with common experience, children who are treated positively with humor, support, physical and verbal affection react better than children who are treated with negative actions such as hostility, defensiveness, abuse, threats and maltreatment. The link between violence towards children e.g. spankings was seen to be established as further violence acted out by the children on others. It is interesting to note that physical punishment might be used if it is balanced with positive support for the children when they need it. This certainly makes sense because without the positive support and recognition, simple physical punishment for being ‘naughty’ would be nothing more than physical abuse of the child which certainly scars a child and could even prevent future normal functioning as an adult. This also creates a direct link to the level of supervisions that a child has from the parents as well as other concerned parties in the family. In a family where the child receives supervision and help from elders, the child can be assured of having a positive relationship with the parents. Common wisdom often states that working mothers

Language and culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Language and culture - Essay Example This perception of low standards on the local education is detrimental based on the fact that globalization has connected the world which requires that every country equips its future work force with the skills and abilities necessary to participate in a global economy. Abroad studies has been shown to present an opportunity for students to produce negative outcomes where students use the opportunity to have fun away from their parents’ supervision and control where habits such as overindulgence in alcohol and drug abuse are taken up to alleviate loneliness and trauma of culture shock. Nonetheless, studying abroad despite the language and cultural challenges it possess, it should be considered based on the opportunities it presents to students which is essential for personal development. Studying abroad has come to be viewed as a necessary investment for parents who would like their children to gain knowledge in a different environment as this allows them to experience other cultures. In addition, studying abroad takes place after high school when the student is 18 years when parents feel is an appropriate age to begin learning how to be independent. At this age, one can be able to get a job and be able to effectively cater for his personal expenses, a process that relieves the parents of the burdens and expenses. This is because one can get a job and fend for themselves. This brings about two important; factors- experiencing other cultures and becoming independent, both of which bring about the element of personal growth. This in my opinion is the single most valuable reason for choosing to study abroad. Personal growth goes beyond these two factors to include shaping of one’s character where one has to adjust their attitudes, develop a new mentality as they challenge their own beliefs and values in the face of a different environment where beliefs and value systems are more likely to be different.

TV Talk Show Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

TV Talk Show - Essay Example Thank you for making the time to visit. Host: Our second guest is Dr. Hassad Taufiq, a Muslim scholar who is an expert on Islamic history and global politics. Recognized globally for his pioneering efforts in promoting peace and ecumenism, Dr. Hassad's reputation truly is untarnished. Good afternoon, Doctor. Host: The question that we will resolve this afternoon is whether imperialism is an issue of economics or an issue of intolerance and racial supremacy. That is certainly a painful time in our history and for better or worse, has helped chart our collective destiny as a race. First of all, I would like to ask the two of you: what are your concepts of imperialism Hassad: Well, imperialism is one dominant state exercising power over a weaker state, with no other motive but to forward its own agenda and make the weaker state subservient. It is only motivated by selfish intentions. Denise: It's really not as simple as that. Imperialism can take on more subtle forms. There can even be imperialism in trade, as when a superpower takes advantage of its economic clout to make a third world country agree to its onerous demands. Similarly, it is so easy to couch imperialism in words like democracy and order. Denise: There is a great deal of economics involved, the need to accumulate wealth. Towards the end of the 1800's, Britain felt that America was slowly catching up and was becoming the new economic superpower. Threatened by these developments and wanting to protect valuable market share, Britain embarked on a strategy: imperialism. Host: How exactly did they go about that Denise: Well, they gained colonies for economic benefit and to increase their military might. They provided Britain with new markets and resources. Soon, the other developed countries like France, Germany and the United States followed suit. Host: What continents or areas where particularly impacted by this Denise: Oh, definitely, Africa. The continent was too weak at the time to defeat the European Army and the Africans were easily suppressed. When Henry Stanley claimed the Congo River Valley for Belgium, it started the greedy scramble for pieces of this fertile land. For instance, France got Tunisia and Morocco and Italy took Libya. It was all about money and profit and gaining strategic strength. Host: Do you agree, Doctor Hassad: Well, I agree that economics played a major part, but if we are to focus on economics alone, then I'm afraid that it does not reflect the entire breadth of the problem. It is inaccurate to limit it merely to that. Host: Why do you say that Hassad: I think that at the heart of it really is the propensity of human beings to think of other human beings that they perceive to be lower than them in stature as tools. Host: How insightful and provocative. Could you please expound further Hassad: Let me put it this way - the objectives were not only limited to acquiring resources. Captured people were no different

Internet Firewall Security Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Internet Firewall Security - Term Paper Example Considering all these cons, one must ensure that a good firewall is in place to keep the hackers at an arm’s length, keeping them at bay is an arduous task. This paper will shed light upon internet firewall security and how a good firewall can protect a person from malware, Trojan horses and other undesirable viruses. Firewall Basics: â€Å"The term "fire wall" originally meant, and still means, a fireproof wall intended to prevent the spread of fire from one room or area of a building to another. The Internet is a volatile and unsafe environment when viewed from a computer-security perspective, therefore "firewall" is an excellent metaphor for network security.† (What is a firewall?) Firewall is not something general, it means several specific things and it is supposed to do several important things to ensure that a user is safeguarded against attacks. Packet filtering is perhaps the most important job of a regular firewall. All the internet activities like downloads, chats and so on are done in packets, and these packets contain information. Firewall must ensure that these packets are either allowed or disallowed based on the source of the internet protocol address known as the IP address. The destination port of these packets is also very important, the firewall is supposed to allow or disallow these packets purely on the basis of their destination port. Firewall must follow a protocol and allow or disallow packets or information based on the set protocol. This method of packet filtering is highly effective against malware and other dangerous attacks but this is not a foolproof plan. All traffic can be blocked by a firewall which does not make much sense; it should allow certain packets which are safe for the user to receive. It has its weaknesses like it becomes very difficult for a basic firewall to detect spoofing which means the information contained in the packets is falsified. Allowed packets may contain a bug which can retrieve a passwor d and cause unwanted actions, a basic firewall is vulnerable to these dangers. Circuit relay is another type of firewall which provides enhanced security, application level gateway is perhaps the most advanced of all and provides even better security. Static Packet Filtering: â€Å"Static packet filtering is a firewall and routing capability that provides network packet filtering based only on packet information in the current packet and administrator rules.† (Statistic Packet Filtering) Static packet filtering is based on the following important things: The administrator defines rules. The allowed ports and IP addresses are set by the administrator and only the allowed ports are allowed to send and receive packets. The transport layer contents, the network and the packet contents are all determined by the administrator. Better level of security is provided by the dynamic packet filtering. Static packet filtering does not look at the contents closely, on the contrary dynamic packet filtering screens contents very closely, previous connection states are also considered by dynamic packet filtering which static packet filtering fails to do. The packet headers are very important under static packet filtering, the information stored in the headers determines whether packets should be allowed or dropped. These headers are compared against the control policy which is set by the administrator. Below is an illustration which presents the same concept very comprehensively. (Static Packet

Face Recognition Essay Example for Free

Face Recognition Essay For humans, faces are the most significant for visual stimuli, a fact that becomes apparent in social settings—as a species we are constantly, almost obsessively, monitoring each others faces, paying close attention to subtle details that can give some insight into the emotional state, level of engagement, or object of attention of our associates. Fluency with faces offers great social advantages, allowing one to glean aspects of anothers internal thought processes and to predict their behavior. (Leopold, 2010). Explain the processes associated with face recognition, identification, and classification Concept generally refer to the abstract notion of what that category represents in one’s mind. ((Robinson-Riegler, 2008). The recognition of individual faces is in some ways the pinnacle of human visual performance. Because all faces have the same basic configural appearance (for example: two eyes above a nose and mouth, sometimes called the first-order configuration), individuals must be identified by subtle deviations from this prototypic pattern, sometimes referred to as second-order relational information or configuration . To process facial identification an individual depend on the process of first-order relational information, the information about the parts of an object and how those parts relate to one another. For face recognition, this would involve an analysis of the person’s facial features and the relationship among those features. However, first-order relational information is not enough to recognize faces; simply noticing that two eyes are above the nose, which is above the mouth, may be enough for recognition that something is a face but doesn’t allow for recognition of who the face is. To recognize faces, we need second-order relational information. Second-order relational information involves comparing the first-order analysis to facial features of a â€Å"typical,† or â€Å"average,† face. This typical face is built up through experience and serves as an implicit standard against which we compare the faces we see. Inverting a face disrupts the encoding of second-order relational information When we deal with information, we do so in steps. One way to think of this is to picture the process of acquiring, retaining, and using information as an activity called information processing Information comes from the outside world into the sensory registers in the human brain. This input consists of things perceived by our senses. We are not consciously aware of most of the things we perceive; we become aware of them only if we consciously direct our attention to them. When we do focus our attention on them, they are placed in our working memory. (Education, 2011) Even when perceivers are presented with stimuli in suboptimal conditions, the face-processing system is still capable of extracting categorical knowledge in a rapid and accurate manner. Third, category activation is sensitive to the typicality of group members. In categorical thinking people identify with groups who they are familiar with. Analyze the role of encoding and retrieval processes involved with long-term memory and how this affects face recognition. Early perceptual processes (and their associated products) also appear to play an important contributory role to the generation of categorical thinking. Categorization is a fundamental property of the brain. Categorical thinking streamlines most aspects of person perception, including decision making, memorial functioning, and attention processing (Cloutier, 2005). People are skilled with various levels of understanding along with other social agents. From only a few visual cues, a person is able to process detailed impressions of others, identify the sex, emotional status, and identity of conspecifics ; and infer the hidden internal states (example. goals, intentions) that create their plan of purpose. In social cognition, the two basic processes that serves or promotes a person perception are categorization and individuation . Individuation, in contrast to categorization, the individualistic view other people not as members of distinct social groups but rather as unique entities. Individuals are guided by two distinct cognitive processes. These two processes operate at the early stages of a person’s perception, relevant with the process of object recognition. The individual is capable of making individual judgments about stimuli corresponding to prior perceptual experience. As part of the face recognition process, a face must activate a face recognition unit a stored representation of that face in memory. If activated, the person is recognized as familiar. Next, the face recognition unit must activate the person identity node which stores biographical information about the person. If activated, this biographical information becomes available (Robinson-Riegler, 2008). Prior to the retrieval of information from long-term memory, however, a great deal of social-cognitive processing has already taken place. perceivers have resolved the perceptual puzzle of identifying social agents from available visual cues. This includes, but is not restricted to faces. (Cloutier, Discuss at least two possible errors that can occur with face recognition, such as misidentification and self-recognition. Our knowledge of our own face seems inseparable from our general knowledge of self and who we are as individuals, our likes and dislikes, our personal history. Unconscious transference, occurs when a witness fail to identify or distinguish between a target person, for example, falsely identifying an eyewitness may result to imprisonment of an innocent person Robinson-Riegler, 2008). As individuals we confront the world with our faces, from the time of birth to the time of death. The age and gender of a person are printed on their faces. Emotions are expressed in a person’s facial expressions. The open and instinctive emotions that Darwin wrote about, as well as the hidden or repressed ones that Freud wrote about, are displayed on our faces, along with our thoughts and intentions. People have p hysical attractions toward each other, a person may admire the physical attributes such as arms, and legs. In spite of what draws one attention, the face is the first and last that is judged, whether it is beautiful in an aesthetic sense, fine or distinguished in a moral or intellectual sense. The face of an individual defines a person character and experience. Face recognition is crucially important for humans, and the vast majority of us are able to identify thousands of faces individually, or to easily pick out familiar faces in a crowdProsopagnosia or topographical amnesia are lifelong conditions that does not decrease as one grows older.

The Importance of Corporate Social Responsibility Essay Example for Free

The Importance of Corporate Social Responsibility Essay Abstract The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationship of the consumer perceptions about the branding of organizations that invest in social responsibility and the consumer behaviour regarding loyalty and willingness in paying a premium price. Reviewing the literature about Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Corporate Social Performance and Corporate Financial Performance, some questions arise: do consumers understand the efforts made by businesses regarding their social and ethical campaigns? And if so, are consumers willing to pay a higher price for the products and services resulting from these social and ethical campaigns? Are consumers loyal to these businesses? In order to analyse the links between CSR and consumer behaviour, the authors use a structural equations model and a Focus Group. The â€Å"Nespresso† Case is analysed and included in the survey questions, since it is a very well known brand amongst Portuguese consumers. The main conclusions of the paper are that although some of the indicators do not present excellent results, the hypotheses tested, in the structural equation model, were verified. As such, we can conclude that social responsibility policies are important in building a strong brand image and in turn lead to consumer loyalty and consequent availability to pay a higher price for the products or services provided. Within the focus group some interesting findings arise regarding the links between CSR, brand image, loyalty and willingness in paying a premium price. There are indicators that although, CSR is considered important for building loyalty, the links regarding the willingness in paying a premium price are thin. Another finding is that communication policies don’t address the consumer concerns regarding CSR. Keywords:Corporate Social Responsibility, Brand Image, Brand Loyalty, Premium Price Introduction For some decades now research on the role and responsibilities of business in society has been searching for the business case for corporate social responsibility (CSR). The proliferation of studies on the relationship  between corporate social performance and economic bottom line is the result of different shifts in the academic debate. On the one side, in terms of the level of analysis, research has gradually moved from a focus on the macro-social effects of CSR to organizational-level analysis of CSR effects on firm behaviour and performance. On the other, in terms of theoretical orientation, researchers have moved from explicitly normative and ethics-oriented studies to implicitly normative and performance-oriented analysis. (Castaldo et al, 2009) Looking backward at the empirical research undertaken in the last few years, the business case for social responsibility and the related link between Corporate Social Performance (CSP) and Corporate Financial Performance (CFP) remain the most controversial areas in the business-in-society field (Barnett, 2007). Though different in their approaches to CSP definition and measurement, existing studies tend to share an often unstated assumption: the stronger the firm’s involvement in CSR programs and activities, the higher the economic and financial value firms will be able to obtain. However, a substantial inconsistency in the results obtained emerges, in terms of both existence and direction of the correlation between the constructs (Margolis Walsh, 2003; Orlitzky et al, 2003; Salzmann, Ionescu-Somers, Steger, 2005). Brand Image, Brand Loyalty and Premium Price Businesses use the brand to create and communicate their identity and building their image in the consumers’ perspective. The brand image of a successful brand is a valuable business asset because consumers identify more easily, products and services through the respective brands, than otherwise. Another important aspect of branding is that, they provide the basis to positioning and differentiation strategies. There are different points of view and different definitions of brand image. These differences reside at the abstract level in which the image is created in the consumer mind. Furthermore, there are also different theories for the construction of the brand image. Some of these theories include associations with the product (Keller, 1998), while others take in consideration associations related to the business (Biel, 1993), or the country of origin, or the user image (Aaker, 1996). Initially it was Levy (1959) who conceptualised the  concept of brand image. He suggests that products have social and psychological attributes and, as such, consumers develop emotional connections with the brands. For Plummer (1985), the image process formation initiates through the gathering of intrinsic and extrinsic attributes, benefits and consequences that are associated with the brand. According to Faircloth et al (2001), the brand image is a holistic perspective built by all the associations made with the brand. Following this perspective, Ballantyne et al (2006), define brand image as the consumers’ perception about the brand. As such, it will guide a future development of a possible bound between consumers and organisations that have its highest expression through consumer loyalty, and the willingness of the consumer in paying a premium price. The most complete definition of consumer loyalty is given by Jacoby e Chestnut (1978) that sustain that brand loyalty represents the non random repetition of the buying behaviour of the same brand or group of brands, from an individual with buying decision. Price premium has been studied by several authors, namely, Holbrook (1992), Kamakura and Russell (1993), Park and Srinivasan (1994), Netemeyer et al (2004). One may consider that the availability of a consumer to pay a price premium is defined by the amount that he is willing to pay for his favourite brand when compared with a brandless similar product. For Aaker (1996), premium price is a strong indicator of brand loyalty. For Louro (2000), price premium is a basic criterion of brand loyalty and indicates how much the buyer is willing to pay for the brand, when compared with other similar brands. The Nespresso Case Study â€Å"We believe that the true test of a business is whether it creates value for society over the long term† (Peter Brabeck-Letmathe, Chairman and CEO, Nestlà ©) Nespresso is a very well known brand in Portugal. Nespresso’s products are positioned on the high-end of the coffee market, with a patented coffee-capsule technology, associated machinery and coffee capsules. Ecolaborationâ„ ¢, launched in June 2009, is the Nespresso platform for sustainable innovation, and represents their effort for creating value throughout the value chain. Through Ecolaborationâ„ ¢, Nespresso has consolidated all its sustainability efforts in coffee sourcing, capsule recycling and energy-efficient machines into one concerted programme, and  committed itself to meet three targets by 2013: * To source 80% of its coffee from its AAA Sustainable Qualityâ„ ¢ Program and Rainforest Alliance Certifiedâ„ ¢ farms; * To put systems in place to triple its capacity to recycle used capsules to 75%; * To reduce the carbon footprint required to produce a cup of Nespresso by 20%. With an average annual growth rate of 30% since 2000 Nespresso is the fastest-growing â€Å"billionaire brand† of the Nestlà © Group. It also has an established track record of sustainability, establishing the Nespresso AAA Sustainable Qualityâ„ ¢ Program in 2003 with Rainforest Alliance, through which only the highest-quality beans are sourced and where farmers are paid a premium. In 2009, almost 50% of the total green coffee beans Nespresso purchased came from its AAA Sustainable Qualityâ„ ¢ Program, and Nespresso has committed to increase this to 80% by 2013. Model Hypotheses The structural equations model proposed establishes the relationship between Social Responsibility practices with the constructs of brand image, loyalty and consumer willingness to pay a higher price for a product or service from a social responsible organisation. The organisation selected for this study was Nespresso. Therefore, the authors raise three research hypotheses: H1: The social responsibility policies have a positive direct impact on the brand image of Nespresso (ÃŽ ³11 0). H2: A good brand image from Nespresso helps to increase consumer loyalty (ÃŽ ²11 0). H3: A good brand image from Nespresso will increase the consumer willingness to pay a price premium (ÃŽ ²21 0) Data collection for the model estimation was done through a consumer survey using the scales of social responsibility of Roberts (1996), scales of loyalty from Yoo and Donthu (2001), scales of price premium from Chauduri and Halbrook (2001) and scales of brand image from Netemeyer, et al (2004). Sample Characterization 242 valid surveys were collected. The sample comprised 46% women and 54% men, ages varied between 19 and 72 years old, the majority of people that answered the survey were single (88%), with a net income between 1001 and 2000 Euros monthly per family (47%). The number of people per family was in the majority (86%) between 2 to 5 people. Model Estimation The model was estimated using the covariance matrix. The statistical software program used was the STATISTICA 6.1. which allowed to calculate the variance and covariance (data) matrices and the estimation of the structural model. The estimation is undertaken by the method of maximum likelihood, since the objective is to develop and test the theory of brand image of social responsible organisations and behaviours of loyalty and willingness to pay a higher price. The analysis of scales reliability allowed to obtain good indicators for the Cronbach Alpha coefficient. Thus, for Social Responsibility (8 items) we obtained an alpha equal to 0,919, for brand image (5 items) we obtained an alpha of 0,864, for brand loyalty (3 itens) we obtained an alpha of 0,637 and finally for premium price (3 items) we obtained an alpha of 0,812. The chosen indicators to analyse the goodness of the adjustment are the ones suggested by Hair et al (2006) as the absolute indicators, Chi-square standardized, RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) e GFI (Goodness-of-Fit). The Chi-square standardized presents acceptable values when these are comprised between 1 and 3 (Hair, et al, 2006). We use RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) instead of RMSSR (Root Mean Square Residual) because the estimated models are based on the covariance data matrix. This indicator must be comprised between values from 0,05 (good fitness) and 0,08 (acceptable fitness). The GFI (Goodness-of-Fit) is an index of goodness of the adjustment that represents the total fitness levels, without correction in relation to degrees of freedom. High values of this indicator show good fitness, although there are not established minimum acceptable levels. Although some of the indicators do not present excellent results, the hypotheses tested were verified. As such, we can conclude that social responsibility policies are important in building a strong brand image and in turn lead to consumer loyalty and consequent availability to pay a higher price for the products or services provided. Focus Group Methodology Focus Groups are a research technique that allows for data collection through the interaction of a group of people. This technique consists in an interview conducted to a small group of people conducted by a moderator in a non structured way. The moderator role is to motivate the group discussion regarding the research hypotheses that are subject of the study under analysis (Carson et al 2001, Malhotra, 2004, Vaughn et al 1996). Group discussion is a methodology particularly suitable when the prior knowledge of the situations is small, the issues are sensitive and complex and if you want to take full advantage of the opportunity to explore and induce hypotheses, find out the views and attitudes of individuals and details of the issues that are being explored (Krueger, 1994, Harker, 2004). For Morgan (1988) this is an excellent method to establish the why behind the what from the perspectives of the participants. For the purpose of this research the authors conducted a Focus Group of 8 people selected randomly. The objective was that the group selected was a reflection of the participants of the survey used for the structural equations model. When the surveys were distributed a question as placed in order to find out the availability of the respondents to participate in the focus group. From the answers obtained the selection was made in order to be representative of the universe. The selection is presented in the following table. In the focus group the moderator organized the discussion according to the 3 research hypotheses, namely: H1: The social responsibility policies have a positive direct impact on the brand image of Nespresso| Most of the participants on the focus group considered that social responsibility policies have a positive impact on the brand image of any organization. Nevertheless, it was considered a finding of the group that not always consumers understand that an organization does CSR.There was also a discussion on what is CSR, and if organisations actually do it. Or if is only the result of marketing efforts.The main conclusion is that if consumers perceive an organization as a social responsible one, then, that fact will have a positive direct impact on its brand image.Regarding Nespresso, there was not a consensus regarding this aspect. | H2: A good brand image from Nespresso helps to increase consumer loyalty.| Regarding brand image there was a consensus of the group that helps to increase consumer loyalty, and that this is clearly the case of Nespresso. Again, most of the participants did not agree if Nespresso has an image of having social responsible practices.| H3: A good brand image from Nespresso will increase the consumer willingness to pay a price premium.| This was the issue that raised the most discussion. Does a good reputation translated in the brand image regarding social responsibility practices is sufficient for increasing the consumer willingness in paying a premium price?Some of the participants argued that depending on the economic situation that could be true, but when enduring difficult economic periods most of the consumers refrain their shopping attitudes and are more price sensitive.It was also mentioned again that it is crucial that the message comes across to consumers, and that they understand very well what are the policies followed by the organizations. | Conclusions The main conclusions of the paper are that although some of the indicators do not present excellent results, the hypotheses tested, in the structural equation model, were verified. These results were then validated using a focus group methodology. Within the focus group some interesting findings arose regarding the links between CSR, brand image, loyalty and willingness in paying a premium price. There are indicators that although, CSR is considered important for building loyalty, the links regarding the willingness in paying a premium price are thin. Another finding is that communication policies don’t address the consumer concerns regarding CSR, since within the group there was no consensus regarding the organisation under analysis. As such, we can conclude that social responsibility policies are important in building a strong brand image and in turn lead to consumer loyalty and consequent availability to pay a higher price for the products or services provided, but it is crucial for organizations to have communication strategies that address these CSR policies in a way that promotes consumers’ identification. The authors found that further research should be conducted addressing the effectiveness of communication strategies of organizations that promote CSR. References Aaker, David A. (1996), Building Strong Brands, Free Press, New York. Ballantyne, Ronnie, Anne Warren e Karinna Nobbs (2006), â€Å"The Evolution of Brand Choice†. The Journal of Brand Management, Vol. 13, N º 4, pp. 339-352. Barnett, M. L. (2007), â€Å"Stakeholder Influence Capacity and the Variability of Financial Returns to Corporate Social Responsibility†, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 32, N º 3, pp. 794-816. Biel, A. L. (1993), â€Å"Converting Image into Equity†, in D. A. Aaker e A. Biel (Eds.), Brand equity and advertising: advertising’s role in building strong brands, Lawrence Erlbaum, Associates, Inc., Hilsdale, New Jersey, pp. 67-82. Carson, D., Gilmore, A., Perry, C. and Gronhaug, K., (2001), Qualitative Marketing Research, Sage Publications, London Castaldo, S. and F. Perrini (2004), â€Å"Corporate Social Responsibility, Trust Management and Value Creation†, presented at EGOS 2004 â€Å"Trust in Hybrids†, Ljubljana, Slovenia. Castaldo, Sandro, Francesco Perrini, Nicola Misani and Antonio Tencati (2009), â€Å"The Missing Link Between Corporate Social Responsibility and Consumer Trust: The Case of Fair Trade Products†, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 84, pp. 1-15. Chaudhuri, A. e M. B. Holbrook (2001), â€Å"The Chain of Effects from Brand trust and Brand Affect to Brand Performance: The Role of Brand Loyalty†, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 65, pp. 81-93. Faircloth, James B., Louis M. Capella e Bruce L. Alford (2001), â€Å"The Effect of Brand Attitude and Brand Image on Brand Equity†, Journal of Marketing, Theory and Practice, Vol. 9, N º 3, pp. 61- 75. Hair, J. F., R. E. Anderson, R. L. Tatham e W. C. Black (2006), Multivariate Data Analysis, 6th Ed., Pearson, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, N. J.. Harker, Michael John (2004) Lenses and mirrors: the customer perspective on part –time marketers. Marketing Intelligence and Planning. Vol. 22, No. 6, 663-672. Holbrook, Morris B. (1992), â€Å"Product Quality, Attributes and Brand Names a s Determinants of Price: the case of consumer electronics†, Marketing Letters, Vol. 3, N º 1. pp. 71-83. Jacoby, J. e R. W. Chestnut (1978), Brand Loyalty: Measurement and Management, New York: John Wiley. Kamakura, W. A. e G. J. Russell (1993), â€Å"Measuring Brand Value with Scanner Data†, International Journal Research Marketing, Vol. 10, March, pp. 9-21. Keller, Kevin Lane (1998), Strategic Brand Management: Building, Measuring and Managing Brand Equity, Upper Saddler River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Levy, Sidney J. (1959), â€Å"Symbols for Sales†, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 37, N º 4, pp. 117-124. Louro, Maria Joà £o Sousa (2000), â€Å"Modelos de Avaliaà §Ãƒ £o da Marca†, Revista de Administraà §Ãƒ £o de Empresas, Vol. 40, N º 2, pp. 26-37. Malhotra, N. K. (2004). Marketing Research. New Jersey. Prentice Hall. Margolis, J. D. and J. P. Walsh. (2003), Misery loves companies: Rethinking social initiatives by business, Administrative Science Quarterly, 48: 268-305. Morgan, D. L. (1988). Focus groups as qualitative research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Netemeyer, et. al., (2004), â€Å"Developing and Validating Measures of facets of customer-based brand equity†, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 57, N º 2, pp. 209-224. Orlitzky, M., Schmidt, F. L., Rynes, S. L. (2003), Corporate Social and Financial Performance: A Meta-analysis, Organization Studies, Vol. 24, N º 3,pp. 403–441. Park, Chan Su e V. Srinivasan (1994), â€Å"A Survey-Based Method for Measuring and Understanding Brand Equity and Its Extendibility†, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 31, N º 2, pp. 271-288. Plummer, Joseph T. (1985), â€Å"Brand Personality: A Strategic Concept for Multinational Advertising†, in Marketing Educators’ Conference, New York: Young and Rubicam, pp. 1-31. Roberts, J. A. (1996), â€Å"Will the Real Socially Responsible Consumer Please Step Forward?†, Business Horizon, Vol. 39, pp. 79-83. Salzmann, O., Ionescu-Somers, A., Steger, U. (2005) Quantifying Effects of Corporate Sustainability Management. Working paper. Lausanne: CSM/IMD. Vaughn, S., Schumm, J. S., Sinagub, J. (1996). Focus group interviews in education and psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Yoo, B. and N. Donthu (2001), â€Å"Developing and Validating a Multidimensional Consumer-Based Brand Equity Scale†, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 52, pp. 1-14.

Comparative ecology of urban and rural foxes

Comparative ecology of urban and rural foxes Abstract The red fox (Vulpus vulpus) is an adaptable animal that can be found anywhere with adequate food and shelter, it is therefore not surprising that they have adapted from a rural to an urban setting. Few studies have directly compared urban and rural fox ecology. This review had two primary objectives; (1) To describe habitat utilization by urban and rural foxes and (2) to discuss the variation in their diet, population dynamics, causes of mortality, social organization and behaviour by linking these variations to differences in their habitat. Many similarities were observed between the urban and rural fox. It was concluded that the features which determine the distribution and abundance of foxes may differ depending on their habitat. The diets of urban and rural foxes are proposed to be distinguished by differences in degree rather than differences in kind. In urban areas where dense populations of foxes live in close proximity there must also be greater social involvement than in the less associated rural fox communities. Population density is important when considering the spread of epizootic diseases and the timing and degree of population dispersal. 1. Introduction Over the past century increases in human population density have escalated the process of urbanisation (Mc Kinney, 2002). Organisms are now confronted with a range of novel conditions because of the modifications of the natural environment in which they ordinarily thrive. This can potentially impact both their life cycle and patterns of behaviour (Dickman and Doncaster, 1987). In recent years the effect of urbanization on the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) has been of particular interest. The concept that ecological interactions of animals may differ according to the type of habitat they occupy is not new. Differences will arise depending on the nature of the animals habitat interactions and their life history. For example, the gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and the racoon (Procyon lotor) are strongly influenced by urban variables such as proximity to houses, artificial feeders, or other physical structures (Flyger, 1970; Harris 1986). The foxs successful adjustment from a rural to an urban environment is not surprising as they are opportunistic animals that are distributed across a wide diversity of habitats. In Russia and Europe they can be found in the arctic tundra, and have been reported on sea ice 100km north of the nearest land (Harris, 1986). Foxes are to be found southwards in most European habitats. They live from western Asia to eastern Japan and southwards into the deserts of North African. Throughout most of the mainland habitats in North America the same species of fox is found (Hutchins at al, 2003). The wide distribution of the red fox, the diversity of habitats in which it can be found and the speed with which foxes have colonised areas such as Australia are all indications of its adaptability (Harris and Yalden, 2008). This review has two primary objectives: 1. To describe habitat utilization by urban and rural foxes. 2. To discuss the variation in their diet, population dynamics, causes of mortality, social organization and behaviour by linking these variations to differences in their habitat. 2. Habitat Utilization. In both urban and rural environments foxes are most abundant in diverse habitats that offer a wide variety of food and cover (Goldyn, 2003; Harris and Rayner, 1986; Mac Donald Sillero, 2004). They exercise choice in selecting a place to live within the restrictions imposed by their social behaviour (Lloyd, 1980). There are two proposed reasons for the success of the red fox across its wide distribution: 1. Size The fox is small enough to be unobtrusive, yet large enough to be able to move long distances when necessary. Therefore, it can easily colonise new areas and search areas where recourses are scattered (Harris, 1986). 2. Lack of specialization The red fox can thrive in a variety of locations as it has no particular habitat requirements (Lloyd, 1980). 2.1. Rural Habitat. The general perception of a rural habitat suitable for fox habitation is a diverse landscape consisting of scrub and woodland (Llyod, 1980). However, rural habitats also include mountains (above the treeline), moorlands, costal dunes and agricultural habitats such as arable and pastoral farmlands. Foxes have shown a marked preference for small coniferous woodlands in upland areas that are free of anthropogenic influence and afford good shelter (Goldyn, 2003). Large coniferous plantations are generally poor foraging areas for the fox; however, while ground vegetation remains they are also good habitats (Harris and Yalden, 2008). The main factor influencing the location of rural foxes is the availably and distribution of food shelter is generally not a limiting resource (Goldyn, 2003). Dens have a crucial meaning for foxes, not only as breeding places, but also as a shelter for adults during the whole year (Meia and Weber, 1993). The rural fox digs dens in a wide variety of habitats including; banks; enlarged old rabbit burrows; disused or occupied badger setts; also natural holes in rock crevices and drains (Harris 1977a; Harris 1986). Vegetative cover and water need to be within or close to denning sites for this species. They should also be located near areas with a good prey base as females seldom range more than half a mile from their dens (Hoover and Wills, 1987). In farmland areas foxes have shown a preference for denning sites that are undisturbed by humans. Wood edges and woodlots are virtually exclusive habitats where fox dens are situated (Lariviere, 1966). In farmlands adjacent to wooded areas only a minority of foxes will locate in an open habitat such as arable land. Goszozynskis study (1985) showed that in an area with 21% forest coverage; only 2% of all dens were located in open habitats. However Goldyn (2003) found that in farmlands where wood cover is lacking, foxes can successfully adapt to completely different conditions, reaching high den sites. The banks of drainage ditches, marsh banks and boundary strips between fields were also frequently used as den locations. This is indicative of the adaptable nature of the fox in a sub-optimal habitat. 2.2. Urban habitats. For the purpose of this review an urban habitat will refer to any habitat within a built up area that does not occur naturally outside it. Urban habitats include gardens, parks, wastelands, road verges, railway tracks and cemeteries (www.wildberks.co.uk). Urban habitats have become ecosystems in which mammal populations have adapted their lifestyle in order to survive. These fragmented ecosystems provide breeding sites, food and shelter for foxes (Macdonald and Newdick, 1982). In the past there has been some confusion as to which habits are important for the urban fox. It was noted by Llyod (1968) that urban foxes may live in gardens, but usually they shelter in daytime in woodlands, parks, cemeteries, and overgrown sites such as isolated building plots. Later Harris (1977a) noted that the daytime rests of most importance are quiet gardens (irrespective of size) and similar domestic habitats, he proposed that parks and public open spaces were of little importance; this is evident in Table 1. Habitat variables appear to have consistent effects on the distribution of foxes. Similar to foxes found in rural areas, the urban fox is most commonly found in areas of diverse habitat. In an urban environment diverse habitats include areas where industry, commerce or council rented housing predominate (Harris and Rayner, 1986). In London the availability of suitable habitats for daytime harbourage is an important limiting factor for the distribution of and numbers in fox populations (Harris, 1977a). Habitat Number of Specimens Percent of specimens Percent of surburban land use Resedential habitats gardens, garden sheds, cellars, houses 226 59.79 40.19 Industrial habitats sewage stations, factories, builders yards, nurseries 28 7.41 3.72 Vacant land, normally without public access 32 8.47 6.01 Parks and public open spaces 33 8.73 10.53 Hospitals 9 2.38 1.10 Allotments 20 5.29 1.29 Cemetries 10 2.65 0.74 British rail and underground lines 9 2.38 2.29 Golf courses 5 1.32 No data Sports grounds and school fields 3 0.79 2.29 Rubbish tips 2 0.53 0.59 Airports 1 0.26 1.58 Road deaths 22 Other habitats 29.67 Totals (excluding road deaths) 378 100.00 100.00 Table 1: Harris (1977a) collected and recorded the location of 400 urban fox corpses in London. This data illustrated the relative importance of the various urban habitats as daytime harbourage. It has also been suggested by several authors that railway lines may be a particularly important habitat for the urban fox. Radio-tracking in Edinburgh revealed that the types of habitats visited by foxes largely reflected their availability. Railway lines were particularly important to dog foxes as pathways between parts of their range (Treweila and Harris, 1990). In London regular disturbance is the main factor governing the distribution of dens. The majority of natal dens are situated in undisturbed habitats including under garden sheds, quiet gardens and railway embankments. Few litters are raised in dens in areas of public access; this is illustrated in Table 2 (Harris, 1977a). Rural foxes have also shown a preference for denning sites that are undisturbed by humans (Goldyn, 2003). Situation Number of Specimens Percent Under garden sheds with raised floors 36 37.1 Under concrete floors of garages, out-buildings, and raised floors of summer-houses and portable huts 10 10.3 In air-raid shelters 1 1.0 In drains 1 1.0 In banks of earth e.g. at bottom of gardens, railway embankments, etc, 29 29.9 In flat ground 9 9.3 In flower-beds, rockeries 6 6.2 In compost heaps, piles of rubbish, woodpiles 5 5.2 Total 97 100.0 Table 2: Sitting of suburban fox dens used for rearing cubs (Harris, 1977a). 3. Diet As the fox is both a predator and a scavenger, it is presented with a huge variety of prospective foods (Lloyd, 1980). Their diet depends on both location and time of year (Harris, 1986). Foxes are known to switch their diet to feed on whatever is abundant locally. They have adapted particularly well to humans by foraging in towns and hunting in areas cleared for agriculture (Hutchins at al, 2003). It is important to remember that in rural and urban areas a similar range of food types are likely to be eaten; however, the proportions will vary. For example urban foxes in London and Oxford have a broadly similar diet; Harris (1981) found that scavenged items comprised 37% of the diet of foxes in London, compared to 35% in Oxford (Doncaster et al, 1990). Foxes in Oxford ate more earthworms (27% as opposed to 12%) and fewer birds and insects (Harris, 1981; Doncaster et al, 1990). 3.1. Seasonal Variation in Diet Throughout the year vertebrates play an important role in the foxs diet across most of their range (Baker et al, 2006; Harris 1986). The proportion of different mammals in their diet will generally vary according to their location and season. For example in agricultural areas sheep (Ovis aries) are mostly eaten in winter and spring; this roughly corresponds to the lambing season which extends from January to May (Fairley, 1984). In Britain the most important mammal eaten in urban areas is the field vole (Microtus agrestis), which is more abundant in their diet during the winter months (Harris, 1986). Fruits and berries are also of seasonal importance to the fox. In the early autumn foxes include blackberries, raspberries, bilberries, cherries and hawthorn berries in their diet. They eat strawberries in great quantities during the summer months (Llyod, 1980). Lever (1959) also identified earthworms, slugs and snails as constituting a small proportion of the foxs diet in the summer months. On domestic lawns there is a more regular supply of scavenged foods and a greater availability (though not necessarily abundance) of earthworms than on rougher rural pastures (Llyod, 1980). As a result, seasonal differences in the diet of the rural fox are much more pronounced than in the urban fox, as there can be major variation at different times of the year (Harris 1986). 3.2. Scavenging In most habitats scavenging is important for the fox. In upland regions of West Scotland, where other food sources were scarce, the fox was found to scavenge in an agricultural environment. Foxes fed largely on sheep carrion and field voles (65% of mass ingested), supplemented by deer carrion, rabbits and birds (Hewson, 1984). In Ireland rural foxes were also found to scavenge on sheep afterbirths (Fairley, 1984). Scavenging is particularly important to the urban fox as it supplements its diet with a high proportion and variety of scavenged food (Doncaster et al, 1990). In the centre of cities foxes eat more scavenged food and fewer domestic pets, earthworms and wild animals than foxes found closer to the suburban fringe. (Harris, 1986) In London and Oxford scavenged food or food deliberately provided by householders accounts for over 35% of their diet (Harris, 1981; Doncaster at al, 1990). Foxes are known to raid dustbins for scraps (www.thefoxwebsite.org) and may also occasionally raid bird tables (Harris, 1986). 3.3. The fox as a predator Medium sized animals play an important role in the diet of the rural fox throughout all seasons; rabbits for example may account for up to 74% of their diet (Baker et al, 2006). In Ireland foxes tend to switch to brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) when rabbit populations are reduced by myxamatosis (Fairley, 1984). The intake of small rodents is much lower in Ireland than in Britain. It is therefore possible that rats, hares and rabbits are of greater importance to the rural Irish fox because of the restricted variety of mammalian prey, (Fairley, 1970) in particular the absence of field voles in Ireland (Lever, 1959). In agricultural environments the red fox is known to be one of the most important predators (Lloyd, 1980). A study by Conova and Rosa (1994) on the diet of foxes on agricultural land in northwest Italy found that birds and small mammals made up more than 60% of their diet. Game birds such as mallards (Anas plutyrhynchos) and pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) as well as domestic birds were preyed upon. In Brittan game birds (mainly pheasants), small mammals (predominately field voles) and large mammals comprise 11, 7 and 6% of their diet, respectively (Baker et al, 2006). In England and Ireland lambs are more susceptible to losses than poultry, this is due to the fact that they are numerous and widely dispersed and often suffer from poor husbandry and exposure to severe climatic conditions (Llyod, 1980). In the urban matrix the predatory role of fox has not been abandoned, despite the fact that lambs and wild rabbits are largely absent from their diet due to lack of availability. Instead, urban foxes prey on birds and small mammals to a greater degree than those in rural areas (Doncaster et al, 1990). Foxes are attracted to locations which have a diverse and abundant food base, whether these sources are situated in the urban ecosystem or the surrounding countryside (Dickman and Doncaster, 1987). This is emphasised by similarities in the diets of urban and rural foxes (Doncaster et al, 1990; MacDonald, 1981). The diets of urban and rural foxes are distinguished more by differences in degree than by differences in kind as some populations of rural foxes may also scavenge food from villages and farms (Doncaster et al, 1990). 4. Population Dynamics 4.1 Density Fox population density is influenced by factors such as prey availability and anthropogenic culling (Webbon et al, 2004) and varies depending on location (table 3) (Harris and Yalden, 2008). Webbon et al (2004) found that in rural hill areas, densities may be as low as 0.21 fox per km2 and peak at 2.23 foxes per km2 on arable land. High densities were positively related with areas of coniferous woodland, lowland marsh and grassland leys. In urban areas fox population density is usually higher than in similarly sized rural areas. The highest density of foxes ever recorded was 37.0 adults/km2 in North West Bristol (Baker et al, 2000). This figure was recorded immediately before an outbreak of mange. Fox Population Densities Rural (Webbon et al, 2004) Urban Habitat Number of foxes per km2 Habitat Number of Foxes per km2 Arable land 0.79 2.23 Bristol before mange outbreak (Baker et al, 2000) 37.0 Pastural land 1.39 1.88 Bristol 2.5 years after mange outbreak (Baker et al, 2000) 7.0 Marginal Upland 0.82 London (Page, 1981) 12.0 Upland 0.21 Cheltenham (Harris and Smith, 1987a) 8.96 11.2 Table 3: Population densities across urban and rural locations. 4.2. Dispersal The most important factor affecting dispersal is population density. Trewhella et al (1988) found that in areas of low fox density (rural areas) animals disperse farther than those from areas of high and medium fox density (urban areas). In very low fox density parts of Europe exceptional movements will exceed 100km: however, in Britain movements over 40 km are rare, even in hill areas where fox numbers are low (Harris and Yalden, 2008) Not only do urban foxes move shorter distances, but fewer of them actually leave the home. Trewhella et al (1988) found that by the end of their second year the final proportion of urban foxes that dispersed were 75.8% for males and 37.8% for females. The rest permanently stay on the home range where they were born. Storm et al. (1976) gathered data on rural foxes and found the proportion of foxes dispersing was somewhat higher than in Trewhellas urban study, amounting to 96% for males and 58% for females. Dispersal starts earlier in the countryside than in urban areas. Disturbance, especially by fox hunting, may be particularly important in splitting up a higher number of fox families and accelerating the dispersal of juveniles (Harris, 1986). Dispersal begins in early autumn and is largely completed by the end of the year (Storm et al., 1976). In urban areas cubs that do disperse tend to do so quite late in the season (December). This may be because most urban fox families are subject to less severe disturbance (Harris, 1986). 5. Causes of Mortality 5.1. Human induced mortalities In both urban and rural populations humans are responsible for a high proportion of fox deaths (Table 3). In urban areas road traffic is the main cause of fox mortalities (Baker et al, 2004; Harris and Smith 1987b). In 2004, 58% of fox deaths in Bristol were road deaths; the majority being killed on major category roads (e.g. motorways) (Baker et al, 2004). In rural areas the majority of deaths are caused by culling and hunting foxes. In all regions of mainland Britain there has been a steady increase in the mean number of foxes killed by gamekeepers per km2 since 1960 (Tapper 1992), with four times as many killed per km2 in 1990 as in 1960. In rural Dorset 58% of foxes were deliberately killed by hunting and culling (Reynolds and Tapper, 1995). In a survey of three rural regions in England foxes were culled in 70 95% of farms (Reynolds and Tapper, 1996). Hunting with dogs took a number of forms before the introduction of the Hunting Act in 2004. 21,000 25,000 foxes were killed annually by approximately 200 registered packs of foxhounds; with terriers digging out 55,000 dens and lurchers killing 10,000 foxes (Harris and Yalden, 2008). Urban Fox (Harris and Smith, 1987b) Rural Fox (Reynolds and Tapper, 1995) Cause of death %Killed Cause of death % Killed Road accidents 61.65 Road accidents 7 Killed deliberately by people 17.45 Killed deliberately by people 58 Disease 10.5 Disease 5 Table 3: Major causes of death for urban foxes in Bristol and rural foxes in Dorset. The figures are given as percentages and should be taken to indicate the relative importance of the different mortality factors. 5.2. Disease. Due to higher densities and closer proximity, urban foxes are more susceptible to epizootic diseases such as mange and rabies, this is evident in table 3 (Harris and Smith 1987b). Sarcoptic mange is a parasitic disease that spread across most of mainland Britain during the 1990s, this caused declines in both rural and urban fox populations (Baker et al, 2000). However this decline was more noticeable in urban areas due to higher densities of foxes. In some populations, more than 95% of individuals died. Despite this, populations are slowly recovering (www.thefoxwebsite.org). Harris (1977b) demonstrated that spinal arthritis (sponodylosis deformans), was present in a very high proportion of urban foxes, with an infection level of 34.5%. The average age of the foxes used in the study was only one year nine months. It is thought that development of this disease is related to their diet. Fox (1939) suggested that the situation in urban foxes is unusual; however this has not yet been confirmed by reference to large collections of skeletal material from other populations. 6. Social Organisation and Behaviour 6.1 Territories Davies (1978) recognises territoriality where animals are spaced further apart than would be expected from a random occupation of suitable habitats. The size of fox territory varies largely between regions, depending on their habitat. However territories of the rural fox are generally larger than their urban counterparts. In hill areas of Scotland territories can be up to 4000ha (Lockie, 1964); in rural Dorset it has been averaged at 270ha (Reynolds Tapper, 1995) and as 520ha in Sitka spruce populations (O Mahoney et al, 1999). In urban areas territories may be as small as 8.5ha, this is due to the availability of anthropogenic food sources and the higher density of foxes living in cities. In Bristol the mean territory size is 27ha (Baker et al, 2000), 39 ha in Oxford (Doncaster and Mac Donald, 1991) and 100ha in Edinburgh (Kolb, 1986). The drifting movement of territories appears to be unique among urban foxes and has been studied in Oxford. City ranges were not spatially stable over months or even weeks. They moved in step-wise extensions to encompass new areas whilst at the same time contracting other parts of the range to expel old areas. (Doncaster and Mac Donald, 1991). Movement of home ranges may be a behavioural adaptation that has developed since the invasion of foxes into urban areas. The average amount of food available in the city is usually higher than in an equivalently sized rural area, but there is also a much greater variance in food availability (Doncaster et al, 1990; MacDonald, 1981). Foxes must regularly explore new areas and re-explore old ones in order to make the optimum use of the resources in an urban environment. In a large rural home range this activity would not be viable as it would require far too much energy; however this strategy survives and prospers in cities because of the high de nsity of different habitat patches. 6.2. Relation with Humans Foxes have had a very mixed relationship with humans. They are generally unpopular with rural communities, gamekeepers, shepherds and the majority of farmers (Reynolds and Tapor, 1996). Fox culling in rural areas is undertaken by several disparate interest groups. The key reason for farmers involvement in fox culling is the protection of livestock or poultry. Similarly, gamekeepers undertake culling to protect game on relatively large farms (Llyod, 1980). In rural areas fox hunting as a sport is often of substantial interest. In some cases landowners and gamekeepers curtail their culling effort to ensure sufficient foxes are available for hunting (Heydon and Reynolds, 2000). In contrast with this, urban foxes are welcomed by most residents and are often supported through deliberate feeding by householders (www.thefoxwebsite.org). During the 1970s and 80s there was a large reduction in the number of foxes killed by the local authority, this was due to their increasing popularity in British cities such as London (Harris and Yaldin, 2008). Damage caused by foxes in urban areas is generally slight; however fox predation on domestic pets contributes to the problematic relationship between humans and foxes. In relation to his study of food preferences in urban foxes, Harris (1981b) questioned households in Bristol regarding numbers of domestic animals killed by foxes. 5,191 households took part in the survey. Of the households that owned cats only 2.7% had lost a cat to foxes, most of which were kittens. 7. Conclusion Foxes are found anywhere with adequate food and shelter; their habitat can vary widely in terms of climate and terrain, ranging from the extremes of the arctic tundra in Russia and Europe to the deserts of North Africa (Hutchins at al, 2003). Since foxes have exploited every other suitable habitat, it would be surprising if they had not become city-dwellers. Mac Donald and Nedwick (1982) have suggested that there is no strict division between rural and urban foxes; radio tracked foxes regularly commuted between urban and rural areas. Nevertheless, living in the city requires special adaptations. The features which determine the distribution and abundance of foxes may be different in urban and rural habitats. The habitats of most communities of rural foxes are determined by the availably and distribution of food and by competition for it according to the density of foxes in an area (Goldyn, 2003). In an urban environment food is not usually a limiting recourse as vast amounts of food are available for scavenging. Instead, shelter becomes a high priority and their distribution is determined by the availability of suitable daytime refuge (Harris, 1977a). The diets of urban and rural foxes are generally very similar, however the availability of these foods differ between environments. The same controversy over predation on mans livestock exists in both areas, but in urban areas cats are substituted for lambs and domestic birds for poultry (Harris, 1981, Hewson, 1984). The largest difference in their diets is the more regular supply of scavenged foods and the greater availability of earthworms on domestic lawns than on rougher rural pastures (Doncaster et al, 1990). If given the opportunity, some populations of rural foxes may also scavenge substantial proportions of their food from villages and farms. In urban areas where dense populations of foxes live in close proximity there must be greater social involvement than in the less associated rural fox communities (Baker et al, 2000; Webbon et al, 2004). The closer proximity of high density urban fox populations results in higher susceptibility to epizootic diseases than their rural counter parts (Harris and Smith, 1987b). Density also has an affect on dispersal; generally animals from low density rural areas disperse farther than those from high or medium fox density urban areas (Trewhella et al, 1988). Not only do urban foxes move shorter distances but fewer of them actually leave the home (Trewhella et al, 1988; Storm et al, 1976). In both rural and urban populations humans are responsible for the majority of fox deaths. However, they are perceived very differently in these habitats. The majority of urban fox deaths are accidental (Baker et al, 2004); they are generally welcomed and have provided people with a connection to the natural world. On the other hand, in a rural setting foxes are seen as an agricultural pest and the majority of deaths are caused by culling and hunting (Heydon and Reynolds, 2000). This review highlights the influence of urbanisation on a highly adaptable and opportunistic animal. Foxes have become incredibly proficient at eking out a living in todays world and are deeply entwined in our history and culture.This review ultimately shows that the entire way of life of the urban fox is extremely similar to that of the rural fox; any behavioural differences observed seem to fall within the known range of responses of the fox to environmental stimuli. The specifics of their divergent ecology may differ depending on the habitat they occupy; however the structures of their ecologies remain the same. 8. References Baker, P.J., Funk, S.M., Harris, S., White, P.C.L. (2000). Flexible spatial organization of urban foxes, Vlpus vulpus, befo

Costs and Benefits of Globalization and Localization Essay example -- G

"Globalization is unstoppable. Even though it may be only in its early stages, it is already intrinsic to the world economy. We have to live with it, recognize its advantages and learn to manage it," said Maria Livanos Cattaui in her article, The global economy - an opportunity to be seized (Business World, 1997). Many authorities agree that as the world enters into the twenty-first century, many economic, political, and cultural changes will take place due to what some people are simply calling the latest buzzword. The fact that globalization exists is not necessarily the important issue here. Rather, the world's eyes must focus on costs and benefits of both globalization and localization, and how countries are affected by both of these opposite tendencies of international politics. James N. Rosenau, in his article, The Complexities and Contradictions of Globalization, defines globalization as "'something' that is changing humankind's preoccupation with territoriality and the traditional arrangements of the state system." In other words, globalization is causing countries to break their territorial boundaries economically, politically, and socially, and in doing so, open themselves up to outside international influences. Such worldwide influence has proven to have many benefits throughout the world. Through globalization, the world has seen a significant expansion of economic, social, and political benefits. Particularly, globalization has expanded investments, trade, and production far beyond any individual country?s boarders. According to the article, The Global Economy, by Maria Livanos Cattaui, " International trade in goods and services now stands at more than US$ 6000 billion per year [while] the accumulated stock of ... ...of globalization are much more uniformly widespread than the social or political benefits. Therefore, in determining whether the things gained by globalization are more fundamentally important to people?s lives than the things gained by localization, I would argue on the basis of sustained economic growth due to globalization, that yes, they are. Works Cited Cattaui, Maria Livanos. "Global Economy." Business World, Internet. Available: http://www.iccwbo.org/html/globalec.htm Rosenau, James N. "The Complexities and Contradictions of Globalization." World Politics 98/99. Connecticut: Dushkin/McGraw Hill. Sanger, David E. "After a Year, No Letup in Asia?s Economic Crisis." New York Times. 6 July 1998. Sutherland, Peter D., and John W. Sewell. The Challenges of Globalization. Internet. Available: http://www.odc.org/ges.html